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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


BULLETIN No. 701 


Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry 
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief 






Washington, D. C. 


September 20, 1918 


THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WHEAT-FLOUR 
SUBSTITUTES AND OF THE BREADS 
MADE THEREFROM. 


By J. A. Le Clerc, Chemist in Charge , and H. L. Wessling, Assistant Chemist t 

Plant Chemical Laboratory. 


i* 


CONTENTS. 


Object of the investigation. 

Analytical work: 

Character of flours and breads ana¬ 
lyzed. 


Page. 

1 


Page. 

Analytical work—Continued. 

Methods of analysis. 3 

Results of the analysis. 3 

Summary. 9 


OBJECT OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

At present great interest is manifested in the subject of bread, 
||1 as well as the various kinds of flour from which it can be made. 
Methods of making several varieties of bread, together with the 
place in the dietary occupied by bread, have been studied by the 
Bpj| department and the results have been published. 1 This bulletin 
gjgjg gives the results of the analyses of more than 30 part substitutes for 
wheat flour and the bread made from them. As very few authentic 
analyses of American bread materials and breads made with wheat- 
flour substitutes have been published, the results given here undoubt¬ 
edly will be of value to millers, bakers, and housewives throughout 
the country. 

ANALYTICAL WORK. 

CHARACTER OF FLOURS AND BREADS ANALYZED. 

Bread, as the unqualified term is understood generally in the 
United States, is the product made from wheat flour, salt, and water 
(with or without the addition of sugar, milk, etc.), leavened with 
yeast. The many other kinds of bread, such as rye bread, corn 
bread, salt-rising, and hot or baking-powder bread, usually are 
known by qualifying names to distinguish them from bread made 
entirely of wheat flour with yeast. 



1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Buis. 807 and 955. 


59826°—18—Bull. 701 


Monograph 



































2 


BULLETIN 701, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Wheat flour always has been held in high favor as the principal 
ingredient of bread, because in the presence of water the protein of 
wheat yields a tenacious and elastic substance, called gluten, which 
has the property of expanding during fermentation, thus forming a 
network of cellular air spaces throughout the dough. During the 
baking process the gluten is so altered, or “set,” that the cellular 
structure is retained, as a result of which there comes from the oven 
a light, porous loaf, unlike that produced from any other cereal flour. 

FLOUR. 

Standard flour .—As the experiments herein reported were carried 
on intermittently over a period of three years, it was impossible to 
obtain the same standard wheat flour for the entire series. Conse¬ 
quently the standard flour, which formed three-fourths of the flour 
content of the breads analyzed, varied in its composition. The flour 
used in making the loaf here designated as the standard contained 
12.50 per cent protein (NX6.25), while the protein content of the 
bread of this standard loaf as analyzed was 8.74 per cent. Other 
wheat flours used in admixture with the substitutes considered in the 
course of this work varied in their protein Content from 11.38 to 
12.63 per cent, the breads naturally showing a corresponding varia¬ 
tion in the protein content. This accounts for some apparent dis¬ 
crepancies in the protein content of the breads made with 3 parts of 
wheat flour to 1 part of substitute. 

The substitutes used in these experiments may be classified as 
follows: 

Group 1: Substitutes of low protein content or high carbohydrate 
content. They include the starches from different sources; fruits, 
such as the banana; roots, such as the cassava; tubers, such as the 
potato and the dasheen; and nuts rich in carbohydrates, such as 
the chestnut. 

Group 2: Substitutes obtained from grains and cereals. Among 
these are the common cereals, as well as buckwheat, grain sorghums, 
and millet. 

[_ Group 3: Substitutes obtained from the legumes, including the 
peanut. 

Group 4: Substitutes obtained from certain by-products, like 
bran, wheat germ, cotton seed, peanut oil cake, and soy-bean oil 
cake. Most of these flours or meals were obtained from the trade. 

A few of the experimental flours were prepared in the Fruit and 
Vegetable Utilization Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry in this 
way: For Irish potato flour, the potatoes were pared, sliced, cooked 
in steam for about five minutes, then dried, and finely ground. 
The sweet potato flour was prepared by cutting the roots into long 
thin slices, spreading them on trays to dry in a current of warm air 



of D. 

OCT 4 19)8 


CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WHEAT-FLOUR SUBSTITUTES. 


3 


until thoroughly dry and brittle, and then passing the dried product 
through a small hand-power mill. For the banana flour, large 
green fruit was used. It was peeled by hand, sliced, dried, and 
ground into a flour. 

Of those prepared in the Plant Chemical Laboratory the chestnut, 
dasheen (peeled and unpeeled), rice (polished and brown), millet, 
bean, pea, chick-pea, and soy bean were first thoroughly .cleansed and 
then ground in a hand mill, while rye, feterita, kafir, milo, and 
kaoliang were scoured and then ground in an experimental mill 
to give the desired flours. To obtain the peanut meal, roasted 
peanuts were crushed with a rolling pin. 

The potato flakes employed in these experiments were obtained 
from Germany several years ago. The boiled potatoes were prepared 
in the laboratory by boiling potatoes in their skins, after which 
they were cooled, peeled, and mashed. 

BREAD. 

All the breads analyzed in tins investigation were made from 
mixtures of flour, in the proportion of 25 per cent of substitute to 
75 per cent of standard wheat flour. 1 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

The methods for the analysis of cereal foods adopted by the 
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists 2 were used for all the 
determinations made, with the exception of the fat determination. 
As it is impossible to obtain accurate results for the estimation of 
fat in bread by the usual method of extraction, the Polenski method 3 
was employed for this determination. The carbohydrates were 
obtained by difference. The calories per pound were calculated by 
multiplying the sum of the carbohydrates and protein by 1,860, and 
the fat by 4,220, and then adding the two results thus obtained. 4 

RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS. 

Table 1 gives the composition of the standard flour and of the 
substitutes. The composition of the breads, as analyzed on the 
air-dry basis, is given in Table 2, and, as calculated on the basis of 
an assumed average moisture content of 35 per cent, in Table 3. In 
a general way, the data in these three tables have been arranged in 
the order of the protein content of the flour. Those showing a low 
protein content come first, being followed in turn by those pre¬ 
pared from grains and cereals, then by those made from legumes, 
and, finally, by those from certain by-products. Besides giving 
the composition of the various flours and breads studied, the tables 

1 The bread was made according to the directions given in U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 955. 

2 Jour. A. O. A. C., Aug. 15, 1916, Vol. II, No. 2, part 2: 187. 

3 Zt. Anal. Chem. 1911, 50: 655. 

< The calories were calculated by Rubner’s factors. 




4 BULLETIN 701, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

show the nutritive value, in terms of calculated calories per pound, 
the color and texture of the loaf, and the amount of salt-free ash in 
the bread. Plates I to YII show very accurately the color and 
texture of the loaves of the different kinds of bread. 


Table 1 . —Analysis of flour. 


Variety of flour. 

P. C. No. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Fiber. 

Protein 

(NX6.25). 

% 

Carbo- 

hy¬ 

drates. 

Calories 

per 

pound. 

Group 1 (low protein con- 


Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 




tent): 


cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Per cent. 

Per cent. 


Chestnut. 

13461 

6 . 05 

2.45 

4. 35 

1.94 

7. 38 

77.83 

1,768 

Cassava. 

10582 

8.21 

1.60 

.29 

2 . 01 

1.44 

86 . 45 

1,628 

Banana: 









Unripe. 

17259 

7. 85 

2. 65 

.56 

.87 

4. 04 

84.03 

1,661 

Ripe. 

13174 

2.35 

2. 96 

1.03 

.87 

4. 22 

88 . 57 

1,769 

Dasheen: 









Unpeeled. 

13244 

6 . 53 

4.31 

.60 

2. 33 

8 . 25 

77. 98 

1,629 

Peeled. 

13245 

7. 48 

4.12 

.46 

2.14 

8 . 00 

77. 80 

1,615 

Potato: 









Dried. 

14659 

6 . 82 

4. 01 

.43 

1.69 

12. 25 

74.80 

1,636 

Flakes. 

14667 

7.63 

3.31 

.29 

1. 75 

5. 70 

81.32 

1,630 

Boiled. 

18086 

80. 72 

.80 

.05 

.40 

2.16 

15. 87 

341 

Starch . 

10608 

13. 69 

..30 

.12 

.04 

.35 

82.83 

1,552 

Sweet potato. 

14671 

5.98 

3.42 

.79 

2. 07 

4. 68 

83. 06 

1,665 

Group 2 (grains and cereals): 









Spring wheat. 

Standard. 

12 . 00 

.42 

1.00 

.25 

12. 50 

73.83 

1,647 

Yellow corn: 









Raw. 

12883 

6.96 

.82 

2 . 82 

.69 

7. 88 

80. 83 

1,768 

Parched. 









Steamed. 









White corn: 









Raw. 

12884 

7.21 

.95 

2. 73 

.79 

8 . 25 

80. 07 

1,758 

Parched. 









Steamed. 









Rice: 









Polished. 

13485 

9. 65 

.36 

.24 

.20 

8.81 

80.74 

1,676 

Brown. 

13603 

10 . 20 

1.07 

1.47 

.61 

8.94 

77. 71 

l'674 

Buckwheat. 

13311 

9. 25 

1.00 

.92 

.61 

8.12 

80.10 

1 ,679 

Rye (1.1 basis). 

13495 

8 . 67 

1.46 

1.75 

1.42 

15. 60 

71.10 

1, 686 

Oatmeal. 

(’) 

8 . 00 

1 .C0 

7. 00 

1.40 

16.80 

64.90 

1,815 

Feterita: 









Clear . 

14664 

7 25 

1 07 

2 26 

1 21 

1 ^ £7 

79 


Patent. 

14663 

8 . 02 

1.04 

L 87 

.55 

9. 94 

i A. D / 

77.83 

lj <oO 

1,725 

Millet. 

13625 

11.19 

.89 

2. 44 

.51 

14.94 

72.03 

l’ 683 

Kafir. 

12291 

11.38 

1.43 

2. 59 

1.00 

14.12 

69. 48 

P 664 

Milo. 

12293 

11.54 

1.40 

2. 73 

.91 

13.37 

70.05 

1, 667 

Kaoliang. 

12292 

11.41 

1. 57 

3. 04 

1.03 

13.31 

69. 64 

l' 671 

Barley.i. 

17554 

11.47 

1.05 

1.16 

.45 

8.69 

77.18 

1, 636 

Group 3 (legumes): 








Bean, white. 

13459 

8.53 

3. 50 

1.57 

1.49 

25.06 

59. 85 

1,646 

Pea, ordinary. 

13460 

8 . 29 

2. 50 

1.22 

1.14 

25.94 

60.91 

1,666 

Chick-pea. 

14658 

7. 64 

2. 74 

5. 03 

.99 

20 . 44 

63.16 

1 ,767 

Peanut. 

15325 

2 . 82 

2.18 

49. 40 

1.54 

29. 31 

14. 75 

2 ,905 

Soy bean. 

13341 

6.14 

5. 24 

20. 71 

1.72 

39. 56 

26.63 

2 105 

Group 4 (by-products): 









Bran. 

13306 

7.86 

5. 26 

2. 90 

6.22 

18.00 

59. 76 

1,550 

Wheat germ. 

13755 

6.92 

5. 42 

10. 64 

2.17 

32.63 

42. 22 

1 859 

Cotton seed, treated. 

12606 

4. 57 

5.56 

9.68 

4.88 

50. 56 

24. 75 

1 818 

Peanut oil cake. 

18296 

8 . 01 

4.14 

10 . 20 

3. 38 

56. 06 

18.21 

1 811 

Soy-bean oil cake. 


6.25 

5.97 

5. 93 

4.37 

45. 45 

32.03 

lj 691 


1 The average composition of oatmeal as given by Konig, et al. 

































































CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WHEAT-FLOUR SUBSTITUTES, 


5 


Table 2. —Analysis of bread , on the air-dry basis. 


Variety of flour. 

P. C. 
No. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Fiber. 

Protein 

(NX6.25). 

Carbo¬ 

hydrates. 

Calories 

per 

pound. 

Group 1 (low protein 
content): 

Chestnut. 

13492 

Per ct. 
6 .47 

Per ct. 
2.38 

Per ct. 
2.26 

Per ct. 
0.58 

Per ct. 
11.75 

Per ct. 
76.56 

1,731 

Cassava. 

13352 

6.72 

2.23 

2.28 

.58 

10.50 

77.69 

1,729 

Banana: 

Unripe. 

13347 

6.20 

2.57 

2.02 

.41 

10.56 

78.24 

1,740 

Ripe. 

13318 

7.81 

2.34 

1.71 

.42 

10.62 

77.10 

1,719 

Dasheen: 

Unpeeled.... 

13343 

7.37 

2.83 

1.60 

.77 

11.87 

75.56 

1,714 

Peeled. 

13344 

7.38 

2.85 

1.72 

.72 

11.69 

75.64 

1,712 

Potato: 

Dried. 

14816 

6 .73 

2 . 80 

1.93 

.57 

13.19 

74.78 

1,724 

Flakes. 

14819 

3. 27 

2.42 

2.34 

.62 

11.17 

80.18 

1,798 

' Boiled. 

14870 

5. 25 

2 . 82 

1.98 

.50 

12. 40 

77.15 

1,749 

Starch. 

13354 

7.13 

1.92 

2.15 

.20 

9.81 

78.79 

1,700 

Sweet potato. 

13355 

5.12 

2.61 

2.17 

.64 

10.69 

79.06 

1,762 

Group 2 (grains and 
cereals): 

Spring wheat.... 

13096 

7.17 

1.86 

2.97 

.19 

12.63 

75.18 

1,759 

Yellow corn: 

Raw. 

13100 

6.96 

2.01 

2.90 

.30 

11.49 

76.34 

1,756 

Parched. 

13098 

6 . 74 

1.94 

2.88 

.46 

11.75 

76.23 

1,757 

Steamed. 

13102 

6.06 

1.94 

3.59 

.38 

11.69 

76.34 

1,789 

White corn: 

Raw. 

13099 

7.31 

2.01 

2.70 

.32 

11.75 

75.91 

1,744 

Parched. 

13097 

6 .99 

2.00 

3.08 

.44 

11.69 

75.80 

1,758 

Steamed. 

13101 

6.08 

1.86 

3.43 

.35 

11.87 

76.41 

1,786 

Rice: 

Polished. 

13487 

7. 47 

1.86 

1.84 

.21 

12.00 

76.62 

1,726 

Brown. 

13809 

6.87 

2.00 

2.84 

.25 

12.00 

74.66 

1,758 

Buckwheat. 

13488 

7. 72 

1.95 

1. 73 

.27 

11.75 

76.58 

1,713 

Rye (1.1 basis).. 

13542 

9.31 

1.99 

1.89 

.44 

13. 25 

73.12 

1,764 

1,797 

Oatmeal. 

13350 

6 . 93 

2.17 

4.11 

.48 

14.00 

73.31 

Feterita: 

Clear. 

14823 

6 .35 

1.96 

2.00 

.43 

14.12 

75.14 

1,745 

Patent. 

14822 

7.11 

1.93 

1.98 

.30 

12. 49 

76.19 

1,733 

Millet. 

13657 

6.16 

2.03 

2.78 

.27 

13.25 

76. 60 

1,789 

Kafir. 

12302 

2.08 

2. 33 

2.14 

.51 

13.69 

79. 25 

1.819 

Milo. 

12304 

1.73 

2.18 

1.98 

.51 

13.53 

80.07 

1,823 

1,826 

Kaoliang. 

12303 

1.71 

2.19 

1.97 

.46 

13.66 

80.01 

Barley. 

18076 

6.17 

2.08 

3. 26 

.30 

11.50 

76. 69 

1,777 

Group 3 (legumes): 
Bean, white. 

13490 

7.74 

2.70 

1.69 

.49 

15.87 

71.51 

1,683 

Pea, ordinary.... 

13491 

8.13 

2.35 

1.70 

.35 

16.12 

71.35 

1,697 

Chick-pea. 

14821 

7.31 

2. 43 

2.34 

.41 

15.75 

71.76 

1,726 

Peanut. 

15519 

7.78 

2.29 

13. 43 

.59 

17.38 

68.53 

2,164 

1,829 

Soy bean. 

13351 

7.33 

3.10 

7.57 

.72 

19.50 

61.78 

Group 4 (by-prod¬ 
ucts): 

Bran. 

13349 

7.51 

2.83 

2.33 

1.96 

14.12 

71.29 

1,687 

Wheat germ. 

14824 

5.73 

3.03 

4.70 

.57 

18.00 

70. 49 

1,842 

Cotton seed, 
treated. 

13346 

7.37 

3. 07 

3.76 

1.55 

22.62 

61.63 

1,725 


Moisture 
in fresh 
bread. 


Per ct. 


37.29 
38.22 


36.08 
40.80 
42. 01 
34.60 


38.29 

35.60 


36.10 


35.29 

34.89 
36. 57 

34.90 


35.63 


39.24 


37.94 

36.86 























































































6 


BULLETIN 701, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

4 

Table 3. —Analysis of bread , on the 35 per cent water basis. 



Ash. 



Protein 

Car- 

Calories 

Tex¬ 

ture. 


Variety of flour. 

Total. 

Salt- 

free. 

Fat. 

Fiber. 

(Nx 

6.25). 

bohy- 

drates. 

per 

pound. 

Color. 

Group 1 (low protein 
content): 

Chestnut. 

Per 

cent. 

1.65 

Per 

cent. 

0.67 

Per 

cent. 

1.57 

Per 

cent. 

0.40 

Per 

cent. 

8.16 

Per 

cent. 

53.22 

1,208 

84 

Gray brown. 

Cassava. 

1.55 

.52 

1.59 

.40 

7.33 

54.13 

1,210 

95 

Light yellow 

Banana: 

Unripe. 

1.78 

.71 

1.40 

.28 

7.33 

54.21 

1,204 

96 

brown. 

Gray brown. 
Yellow brown. 

Ripe. 

1.65 

.76 

1.20 

.29 

7.49 

54.37 

1,210 

88 

Dasheen: 

Unpeeled. 

1.98 

1.00 

1.12 

.54 

8.33 

53.03 

1,189 

85 

Gray brown. 

Peeled. 

2.00 

.97 

1.21 

.50 

8.25 

53.04 

1,191 

88 

Light gray. 

Potato: 

Dried. 

1. °5 

.95 

1.34 

.40 

9.19 

52.12 

1,196 

88 

Light yellow gray. 

Flakes. 

1.62 

.82 

1.57 

.42 

7.51 

53.88 

1,208 

80 

Yellow gray. 

Boiled. 

1.92 

.92 

1.36 

.29 

8.50 

52.93 

1,200 

95 

Very slightly 

Starch. 

1.45 

.28 

1.50 

.14 

6.86 

55.06 

1,215 

98 

grayish. 

White. 

Sweet potato. 

1.57 

.84 

1.49 

.44 

7.33 

54.17 

1,207 

85 

Gray brown. 

Group 2 (grains and 
cereals): 

Spring wheat. 

1.28 

.31 

2.08 

.13 

8.74 

52. 77 

1,223 

99 

Creamy. 

Yellow corn: 

Raw.... 

1.40 

.38 

2.06 

.21 

8.02 

53.31 

1,227 

95 

Yellow. 

Parched. 

1.35 

.40 

2.01 

.32 

8.19 

53.13 

1,224 

94 

Dark yellow 

Steamed. 

1.34 

.40 

2.48 

.26 

8.09 

52.83 

1,237 

96 

brown. 

Yellow. 

White corn: 

Raw. 

1.41 

.40 

1.89 

.22 

8.24 

53.24 

1,223 

95 

Gray tint. 

Parched. 

1.39 

.40 

2.15 

.31 

8.17 

52.98 

1,227 

96 

Light yellow 

Steamed. 

1.28 

.40 

2.37 

.24 

8.22 

52.89 

1,237 

97 

brown. 

White. 

Rice: 

Polished. 

1.31 

.29 

1.29 

.15 

8.43 

53.82 

1,212 

96 

Grayish. 

Brown. 

1.39 

.42 

1.98 

.17 

8.37 

53.09 

1,227 

94 

Pale yellow brown. 

Buckwheat. 

1.36 

.40 

1.21 

.19 

8.22 

54.02 

1,220 

84 

Light gray. 

Rye (1.1 basis)_ 

1.42 

.49 

1.35 

.31 

9.50 

52. 42 

1,209 

96 

Slightly grayish. 
Yellow gray. 

Oatmeal. 

1.51 

.57 

2.87 

.33 

9.78 

50.51 

1,242 

98 

Feterita: 

Clear. 

1.36 

• .42 

1.38 

.30 

9.79 

52.17 

1,211 

85 

Brown. 

Patent. 

1.35 

.41 

1.38 

.21 

8.74 

53.33 

1,212 

88 

Gray. 

Millet. 

1.40 

.39 

1.92 

.19 

9.18 

52.31 

1,225 

97 

Light yellow 

Kafir. 

1.55 

.48 

1.42 

.34 

9.09 

52.60 

1,206 

97 

brown. 

Brownish gray. 

Milo. 

1.44 

.48 

1.31 

.34 

8.94 

52.97 

1,207 

98 

Yellow gray. * 

Kaoliang. 

1.45 

.51 

1.30 

.31 

9.03 

52.91 

1,208 

1,232 

96 

Red brown. 

Barley. 

Group 3 (legumes): 
Bean, white. 

1.44 

.42 

2.25 

.21 

7.97 

53.13 

97 

Gray. 

1.90 

.86 

1.19 

.34 

11.09 

50.48 

1,201 

84 

Yellow. 

Pea, ordinary. 

1.66 

.67 

1.20 

.25 

11.40 

50.49 

1,201 

1,211 

79 

Yellowish. 

Chick-pea. 

1.70 

.72 

1.64 

.29 

11.05 

50.32 

94 

Pale yellow. 

Peanut. 

1.61 

.62 

9.45 

.42 

12.25 

41.26 

1,394 

98 

Yellow brown. 

Soy bean. 

2.17 

1.17 

5.31 

.50 

13.70 

43.32 

1,283 

85 

Rich yellow. 

Group 4(by-products): 
Bran. 

1.96 

1.17 

1.64 

1.38 

9. 92 

50.10 

1,186 

92 

Gray brown. 

Wheat germ. 

2.08 

1.20 

3.24 

.40 

12.41 

46.87 

1,238 

86 

Yellow brown. 

Cott on seed, treat ed 

2.15 

1.23 

2.64 

1.08 

15.87 

43. 26 

1,211 

85 

Dark brown. 

Soy-bean oil cake.. 

2.19 

1.32 

3.84 

.52 

14.90 

42.25 

1,224 



TOTAL ASH. 

The breads show a wide variation in the total ash content, from 
1.28 to 2.19 per cent, on the basis of 35 per cent moisture. The 
samples having a total ash content lower than 1.50 per cent include 
bread made from wheat flour alone, and that from potato starch, 
as well as the bread from corn, rice, buckwheat, rye, barley, millet, 
and gram sorghums. Among the breads with an ash content above 
1.75 per cent are those made from unripe bananas, dried and boiled 
potato, dasheen, soy bean, bran, and wheat germ. The lowest total 






























































Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 


Plate I 



CHESTNUT. CASSAVA. 



BANANA, UNRIPE. 


BANANA, RIPE. 



DASHEEN, UNPEELED. 


DASHEEN, PEELED. 


Breads from Wheat-Flour Substitutes of Low Protein Content (Group 1) 










Bui. 701, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



POTATO, DRIED. 


Plate II. 


POTATO FLAKES. 





POTATO, BOILED. 


POTATO STARCH. 



SWEET POTATO FLOUR. 


Breads from Wheat-Flour Substitutes of Low Protein Content (Group 1) 








Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 


Plate III 



WHITE CORN MEAL. R ICE, POLISH E D. 



RICE, NATURAL BROWN. 


Breads from Grains and Cereals (Group 2) 








Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 


Plate IV 




BUCKWHEAT. 


RYE. 




OATMEAL. 


FETERITA (CLEAR). 



FETERITA (PATENT). 


Breads from Grains and Cereals (Group 2) 








Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 


Plate V 



MILLET. 





V. * 

- * 


KAFIR. 



MILO. KAOLIANG. 



BARLEY. 


Breads from Grains and Cereals (Group 2), 







Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture 


Plate VI 



bean, white. 


pea, ordinary. 




CHICK-PEA. 


PEANUT MEAL. 



SOY BEAN. 


Breads from Legumes (Group 3) 







Bui. 701, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. 


Plate VII. 


BRAN. 


WHEAT GERM. 





COTTONSEED. 


Breads from By-Products (Group 4). 







CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WHEAT-FLOUR SUBSTITUTES. 


7 


ash content is found in wheat bread and in bread containing polished 
rice or starch as an admixture. The breads made from soy bean, 
wheat germ, and bran had the highest ash content. 

SALT-FREE ASH. 

In making all of the breads, salt, equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the 
total flour, was added. If only the total ash content, which includes 
the added salt, were considered, it might seem that little difference 
exists in the ash contents of the various breads. For example, the 
total ash content of the bread made from polished rice flour is ap¬ 
proximately the same as that of bread from the brown rice flour, 
being 1.31 and 1.39 per cent, respectively. Quite different results 
are given, however, when the ash content is calculated on the salt- 
free basis. In that case, it is apparent that the polished rice bread 
could not have more than 0.30 per cent salt-free mineral constitu¬ 
ents, while the bread from the natural brown rice would have not 
less than 0.42 per cent. It is seen also that while wheat-flour bread 
contains about 0.31 per cent of salt-free ash, bran bread contains 
1.17 per cent, almost four times as much. 

With the exception of that made from starch, the breads of group 
1 are fairly high in salt-free ash. With the exception of that made 
from barley, rye, oatmeal, and the grain sorghums, the breads of 
group 2 are generally low in salt-free ash. The breads of group 3 
have about the same salt-free ash content as those of group 1. The 
breads of group 4 and bread from soy-bean flour (group 3) have a 
very high salt-free ash content, containing about four times as much 
as the wheat-flour bread, an increase of approximately 300 per cent. 

FAT. 

The fat content varies from about 1.1 per cent to over 9 per cent. 
None of the breads of group 1 (those of low protein content) con¬ 
tains much fat. The bread from oatmeal contains almost 3 per 
cent of fat; that made from wheat-germ flour, a little over 3 per cent; 
that from soy-bean flour, almost 4 per cent; and that from crushed 
peanuts (roasted, but not previously pressed), ahnost 9.5 per cent. 
The apparent discrepancy in the fat contents of the various breads is 
due to the fact that, although no fat or shortening was added to 
the dough, a small amount of shortening was always used on the 
hands in handling the dough. The amount of shortening thus added 
to the bread was indefinite, depending upon the character of each 
individual dough. 

FIBER. 

The fiber content is very high in the bread made from bran, while 
in breads made from soy-bean, dasheen, potato, cassava, chestnut, 
wheat-germ, and peanut flours it is moderately high. In all other 


8 


BULLETIN 701, U. S. DEPARTMENT 1 OF AGRICULTURE. 


breads it is comparatively low. The fiber content is much higher in 
bran than in any of the other substitutes used. 

PROTEIN. 

The average protein content (N X 6.25) of the breads belonging to 
group 1 is less than 8 per cent; of breads belonging to group 2, it is 
about 8.8 per cent; of those belonging to group 3, it is about 11.9 
per cent; while for breads belonging to group 4, it is 12.7 per cent. 
This protein content varies from less than 7 per cent, in the case of 
potato-starch bread, to over 15.8 per cent in the case of cottonseed 
bread. Other breads showing a high protein content are those made 
from legumes and wheat germ. Breads made with rye, feterita 
(clear grade), and oatmeal flours are appreciably richer in protein than 
standard wheat bread. All the breads in groups 3 and 4 are much 
richer in protein than is the wheat bread. Of group 1, only the 
bread made from potato flour is richer in protein than all-wheat 
bread. This, however, was due to the fact that the potatoes used 
for this experiment happened to be particularly low in starch and 
high in protein, which would not necessarily be true with potatoes 
grown in every section of the country. 

CALCULATED CALORIC VALUE. 

The average number of calories per pound does not differ very much 
in the various groups of bread. Because of their comparatively high 
fat content, breads made from peanut and soy-bean flours show a 
relatively large number of calories per pound, being 1,394 and 1,283, 
respectively. The bread from oatmeal flour contains 1,242 calories, 
and that from wheat germ, 1,238 calories per pound. The lowest 
figures for the caloric value are found among the samples of group 
1, and in the case of the bran bread. Bran bread owes its low caloric 
value to its high fiber or cellulose content. With the possible excep¬ 
tion of bread made from peanut, oatmeal, wheat-germ, and soy-bean 
flours, all of which substitutes contain a large amount of fat, the 
caloric value of all the breads analyzed is about the same. 

TEXTURE, TASTE, AND GENERAL APPEARANCE OF BREAD. 

Several of the breads of group 1 have a remarkably fine texture 
and general appearance. They comprise those made from potato 
starch, boiled potato, unripe banana, and cassava flour. Those which 
deserve special attention for their fine flavor are the breads made 
from chestnut flour, which is rich, nutty, and very agreeable, and 
from boiled potatoes. The potato bread has the further merit of 
lending itself well to reheating several days after it has been baked, 
because it remains moist longer than most other breads. The sweet- 
potato bread, when made with the usual proportion of sugar, has a 


CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WHEAT-FLOUR SUBSTITUTES. 9 

very agreeable, slightly sweetish flavor. Bread made from ripe 
banana flour also has a sweetish, agreeable, and very characteristic 
taste, and requires no sugar in its preparation. That made from 
dried potato flour has a decided potato taste, which makes it much 
less appetizing than that made from the boiled potato. 

Practically all of the breads of group 2 have a very good flavor, 
although not so marked or characteristic a one as in the case of some 
of the breads of group 1. The most pronounced flavor was noted 
in the bread made from rye, from buckwheat, from yellow corn meal 
and from the sorghum grains. In all other cases the flavor was 
good, without being too pronounced. The texture of the breads of 
group 2 ranks very high, several reaching a grade of 95 or over on a 
standard of 100 for a perfect loaf. 

In group 3, the peanut bread easily ranks first both in flavor and 
in texture. The bread from chick-pea flour is very attractive, 
being remarkable for its volume and texture, while in taste it is not 
noticeably different from good wheat bread. Bread made from the 
Mammoth yellow variety of soy bean has a characteristic beanlike 
and agreeable flavor, but is not especially good in texture. The 
bread made from the ordinary dried bean also possesses a charac¬ 
teristic beanlike flavor, which is less marked when the meal is cooked 
before being used. Bread from dried pea flour has a very agreeable 

taste. 

Every bread of group 4 has a marked flavor peculiar to itself. 
Bran bread naturally has a characteristic “branny” flavor, which 
to many is very agreeable. Its color is dark, and its texture fair. 
The flavor of the wheat-germ bread, while decidedly characteristic, 
is not unpleasant. It also is dark in color, and does not have a very 
good texture. Cottonseed-meal bread, even though it contains but 
15 per cent of cottonseed meal, has a decided flavor and dark color, 
although its texture is fairly good. 

SUMMARY. 

From the salt-free ash determinations it is apparent that all breads 
containing wheat-flour substitutes (except when starch and rice 
flour are used) are richer in mineral matter than is wheat-flour bread. 

The differences in the fat content of the various breads analyzed 
are significant only when materials such as the soy-bean or peanut 
meal & (unpressed) are used. The calculated caloric value of the 
various breads is also so nearly the same that, in geneial, it will 
make comparatively little difference, in computing a day’s ration 
on the basis of calories, which bread is taken. 

Far more significant is the difference in the protein content. 
From a value of less than 7 per cent (where starch was used) to one 
closely approaching 15 per cent (soy-bean bread) is a wide range. 


10 BULLETIN 701, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

The ideal color of the crumb of wheat-flour bread is creamy. With 
the exception of breads made with cooked Irish potatoes, polished rice, 
white corn meal or corn flour, and the pure starches, the color of the 
mixed breads partakes more or less of the color characteristic of the 
substitute. Sweet potato and soy-bean meal yield a yellow loaf; 
banana flour, dasheen, milo, ordinary dried beans, etc., a gray; 
while many others produce a bread more or less gray brown. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT¬ 
ING TO BREADSTUFFS. 

AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. 

Special Flask for Rapid Determination of Water in Flour and Meal. (Department 
Bulletin 56.) 

Importance and Character of Milled Rice Imported into United States. (Depart¬ 
ment Bulletin 323.) 

Alaska and Stoner or Miracle Wheats. (Department Bulletin 357.) 

Intrinsic Value of Grain, Cottonseed, Flour, and Similar Products, Based on Dry- 
Matter Content. (Department Bulletin 374.) 

Experiments with Marquis Wheat. (Department Bulletin 400.) 

Improvement of Ghirka Spring Wheat in Yield and Quality. (Department Bulletin 
450.) 

Experiments with Spring Cereals at Eastern Oregon Dry-Farming Substation, Moro, 
Oregon. (Department Bulletin 498.) 

Characteristics and Quality of Montana-Grown Wheat. (Department Bulletin 522.) 

Comparison of Several Classes of American Wheats and Consideration of Some Factors 
Influencing Quality. (Department Bulletin 557.) 

Experiments With Durum Wheat. (Department Bulletin 618.) 

The Chemical Analysis of Wheat-Flour Substitutes and of the Breads Made Therefrom. 
(Department Bulletin 701.) 

Marquis Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 732.) 

Bread and Bread Making. (Farmers’ Bulletin 807.) 

How to Select Foods: I. What the Body Needs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 808.) 

How to Select Foods: II. Cereal Foods. (Farmers’ Bulletin 817.) 

Shallu or Egyptian Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 827.) 

Tri-Local Experiments on Influence of Environment on Composition of Wheat. 
(Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 128.) 

Translocation of Plant Food and Elaboration of Organic Plant Material in Wheat Seed¬ 
lings. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 138.) 

FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. (Department Bulletin 
39.) Price, 10 cents. 

Alum in Foods. (Department Bulletin 103.) Price, 5 cents. 

Spring Wheat in Great Plains Area. (Department Bulletin 214.) Price, 10 cents. 

Milling and Baking Tests of Wheat Containing Admixtures of Rye, Corn, Cockle, 
Kingshead, and Vetch. (Department Bulletin 328.) Price, 10 cents. 

Origin, Characteristics, and Quality of Humpback Wheat. (Department Bulletin 
478.) Price, 5 cents. 

Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Foods. (Farmers’ Bulletin 142.) 
Price, 5 cents. 

Durum Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 534.) Price, 5 cents. 

Feeding Value of Cereals, as Calculated from Chemical Analyses. (Bureau of Chem¬ 
istry Bulletin 120.) Price, 10 cents. 


11 


12 


BULLETIN 701, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Chemical Studies of American Barleys and Malts. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 
124.) Price, 20 cents. 

Proceedings of 2Sth Annual Convention of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 
Held at Washington, D. C., Nov. 20-22, 1911. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 152.) 
Price, 35 cents. 

Graham Flour, Study of Physical and Chemical Differences Between Graham Flour 
and Imitation Graham Flours. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 164.) Price, 10 cents. 

Studies on Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread at Maine Agricultural Experi¬ 
ment Station. 1899-1903. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 143.) Price, 
5 cents. 

Studies of Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and Macaroni at University of 
Minnesota. 1903-1905. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 156.) Price, 15 
cents. 

Course in Cereal Foods and Their Preparation, for Movable Schools of Agriculture. 
^Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 200.) Price, 10 cents. 

Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 70.) Price, 
10 cents. 

Garlicky Wheat. (^Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 100. Part 3.) Price, 5 cents. 

Experiments with Wheat Breeding. (Bureau of Plant Industry' Bulletin 269.) 
Price, 15 cents. 

Handling Wheat from Field to Mill. (Bureau of Plant Industry' Circular 68.) 
Price, 5 cents. 

Method for Determination of Specific Gravity of Wheat and Other Cereals. (Bureau 
of Plant Industry* Circular 99.) Price, 5 cents. 

Commercial Stocks of Wheat and Flour in United States, Aug. 31, 1917. (Secretary’s 
Circular 100.) Price, 5 cents. 

Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. (Separate 649 from Year Book 1914.) Price, 10 
cents. 

o 


* 
































































Gaylord Bros 

Maker* 

Syracuse, N. Y 
PAT. JAA. 21. 1901 















































































library of congress 


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